Impact of different organic acids on solubility enhancement of cefpodxime proxetil immediate release tablet and its stability studies

Cefpodoxime proxetil is a third generation cephalosporin antibiotic demonstrates pH dependent solubility and is highly soluble only in acidic pH. The purpose of this investigation was to design and develop immediate release tablets of cefpodoxime proxetil by direct compression method and determine the effect of different solid buffers [organic acids] such as fumaric acid [formulations F1-F4], maleic acid [formulations M1-M4] and citric acid [formulations C1- C4] by using cefpodoxime and acid in the ratios of 4:1, 2:1, 1:1 and 1:2 to achieve pH-independent release of the drug. Physical parameters and assay were found to be within the acceptable range as prescribed in USP 36 / NF 31. In vitro dissolution studies of each formulation were performed in distilled water, USP dissolution medium, HCl buffer solution of pH 1.2, phosphate buffer solutions of pH 4.5 and 6.8 to observe the drug release. The formulations F3, F4, M4 were selected for film coating on the basis of better drug release profile, to protect the drug from chemical degradation through hydrolysis. Film coated formulation F3, F4 and M4 showed a remarkable in vitro release of the drug [72.88+/-0.43 to 92.67+/-0.71%] within 30min of observation in all dissolution media and further evaluated by model independent and model dependent approaches. The drug release was found to be best fit to Weibull model as highest r[2] [adjusted] [0.924- 0.998] and lowest AIC [18.416-54.710] values were obtained in all dissolution media. R Gui[registered sign] applied for stability studies of F3 and F4 formulations, showing shelf lives of 28 and 27months at ambient and 33 months at accelerated temperatures. Formulation F4 was chosen as best formulation on the basis of physical properties, highest dissolution rate and stability studies

Formulation development and optimization: Encapsulated system of atenolol and Glyburide

Purpose: Objective of this study is to develop; tablet- in- a capsule system, to deliver Atenolol 25mg and Glyburide 5mg in the hard gelatin capsule. In order to improve patient compliance and reduce problems associated with complex therapeutic regimen Atenolol [cardio-selective beta-blocker] and Glyburide [anti-diabetic; sulfonylurea] are commonly, prescribed to the diabetic hypertensive patient

Method: In present work six different formulations of Atenolol [AF1-AF6] and Glyburide [GF1-GF6] were prepared by direct compression method using Avicel, Lactose DC, Crospovidone and Magnesium Stearate in different proportions and encapsulated in hard gelatin shells. Post compression parameters i.e. weight variation, diameter variation, thickness variation, hardness variation,% friability, disintegration,% drug release were determined at different pH 1.2, 4.5 and 6.8, and subjected to dissolution profile comparison through similarity factor [f[2]]

Results: Stability studies were performed and shelf lives were calculated by R-Gui Stab R console 2.15.2 and determined to be 15and 27 months for Atenolol and Glyburide respectively. The percentage drug contents of Atenolol and Glyburide were estimated spectrophotometerically at 286nm and 314.7nm respectively. Formulations CF1-CF6 [encapsulated] were subjected to weight variation, disintegration and dissolution tests and subjected to model dependant analysis for dissolution studies. The simultaneous quantitation of Atenolol and Glyburide for content assay was done by HPLC method of analysis

Conclusion: formulation CF6 is showing highest coefficient of correlation values for all models applied. So we can conclude that the proposed system can improve patient compliance by increasing the ease of administration of two drugs together

Formulation development and comparative in vitro study of metoprolol tartrate [IR] tablets

The objective of the present work was to develop Immediate Release [IR] tablets of Metoprolol Tartrate [MT] and to compare trial formulations to a reference product. Six formulations [F1-F6] were designed using central composite method and compared to a reference brand [A]. Two marketed products [brands B and C] were also evaluated. F1-F6 were prepared with Avicel PH101 [filler], Crospovidone [disintegrant] and Magnesium Stearate [lubricant] by direct compression. Pharmacopoeial and non-pharmacopoeial methods were used to assess their quality. Furthermore, drug profiles were characterized using model dependent and independent [f2] approaches. Brands B and C and F5 and F6 did not qualify the tests for content uniformity. Moreover, brand B did not meet weight variation criteria and brand C did not satisfy requirements for single point dissolution test. Of the trial formulations, F2 failed the test for uniformity in thickness while F4 did not disintegrate within time limit. Only F1 and F3 met all quality parameters and were subjected to accelerated stability testing without significant alterations in their physicochemical characteristics. Based on AIC and r2adjusted values obtained by applying various kinetic models, drug release was determined to most closely follow Hixson-Crowell cube root law. F1 was determined to be the optimized formulation

Intermediate release formulations of diclofenac potassium tablets for IVIVC

In recent days response surface methodology [RSM] has widely been applied for development and optimization of cost effective formulations with required quality. Study comprised of three steps including micromeritic comparison of different powder blends of placebo and diclofenac potassium [DP], formulation designing with CCRD [Design Expert, version 7.0.0], and stability testing of selected formulations by using R Gui. Ten formulations [F11-F20] were developed using microcrystalline cellulose [Avicel PH-102] [X1] [13-72%], methocel K15M [X2] [6.59-23.4%] and magnesium stearate [X3] [1.32-4.68%], while responses were % friability and % drug release. Blending rate constant was determined at 3, 6, 9 and 12 minutes. The results of physicochemical parameters were found within acceptable limits. After in vitro testing at pH 1.2, pH 4.5 and pH 6.8, mechanism of drug release, kinetic analysis and statistical evaluation were carried out by model - independent, model-dependent and one-way ANOVA methods. Most formulations followed zero order kinetics at higher pH. Fickian release [0.326

Pharmacokinetic and bioequivalence studies of immediate release diclofenac potassium tablets [50mg] in healthy volunteers

This study was conducted with the aim to determine the pharmacokinetic and bioequivalence of diclofenac potassium 50 mg test [F4] tablet formulation with reference product [Caflam]. Present study was single dose, randomized, two phase cross over design, conducted in 12 healthy Pakistani volunteers and planned in accordance with FDA guidelines. In this study a simple, selective, sensitive and reproducible HPLC procedure was developed and validated for the estimation of diclofenac potassium in plasma. The process was validated in the range of 50 - 0.05 [micro]g.mL-1 and used in bioequivalence trial of two products. Multiple blood samples were collected at various time points [0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 hr after treating volunteers with test [F4] and marketed reference brand. Plasma separation and deproteination were carried out with acetonitrile; samples [20[micro]L] were injected using the validated HPLC method. Various pharmacokinetic parameters [compartmental and noncompartmental] were estimated using KineticaTM 4.4.1 [Thermo Electron Corp. USA]. Bioequivalence among the products was established by calculating the 90% CI with log and non log transformed data for C[maxcalc], T[maxcalc], AUC[0-[infinity]], AUC[tot] and AUC[last] using two way ANOVA and Schirmann's Two one sided t- test. No significant difference was found between log and non-log data. The 90% confidence interval values using log transformed data for AUC[0-[infinity]] [0.997-1.024], AUC[tot] [1.004-1.031], AUC[last] [0.997 - 1.024], C[maxcalc] [0.994-1.007] and T[maxcalc] [0.996-1.013] for the trial and reference products were found within the FDA acceptable limits of 0.8-1.25. Results were further verified by the Schirmann's one-sided t test. Results showed the bioequivalence of test and reference formulations. Both the products were well tolerated

Simultaneous quantitation of Ofloxacin, Fexofenadine HCl and Diclofenac Potassium in affixed dose combinative formulation by HPLC-UV method

A high-pressure liquid chromatography [HPLC-UV] based simple and specific method for simultaneous quantitative determination of Ofloxacin, Fexofenadine HCl and Diclofenac Potassium has been developed and validated according to ICH guidelines. Chromatographic separation of the three drugs was carried out on 4.6 x 250mm x 5micro Licrospher RP Select B Column, using mobile phase constituted of methanol and phosphate buffer pH 3.5 [650: 350], pH adjusted to 3.5 +/- 0.05 with dilute ortho-phosphoric acid and delivered at a flow rate of 1ml/min. The eluents were detected at UV wavelength of 220nm and the retention times for Ofloxacin, Fexofenadine HCl and Diclofenac Potassium were 2.5 minutes, 4 minutes and 11.5 minutes, respectively. This method is suitable and specific for the three drugs and was found to be linear [R2>0.996], accurate, specific, reproducible and robust over a concentration range of 0.05 to 0.15mg/ml for Ofloxacin, 0.015 to 0.045mg/ml for Fexofenadine HCl and 0.0125 to 0.0375mg/ml for Diclofenac Potassium. The proposed method is simple and convenient, hence easily utilized for the characterization and quantitation of the three drugs in a single formulation for combination therapy of rheumatoid arthritis, sepsis, infection with fever and flu

Quality evaluation and in vitro interaction studies between levofloxacin 250mg and diclofenac sodium 50mg tablets

Fluoroquinolones are broad-spectrum antibiotics, work against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and are a clinically proven option for many resistant infections. Among fluoroquinolones Levofloxacin works best against acute sinusitis, inflammation of the lower airways, acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis, community acquired pneumonia, complicated urinary tract infection including Pyelonephritis, chronic bacterial prostatitis and skin and soft tissue infection. Levofloxacin is a frequently prescribed antibacterial agent with Diclofenac Sodium for pain management in infectious conditions. The objective of the present work is to evaluate the level of interaction between Levofloxacin and Diclofenac Sodium. In this work market available brands of both drugs were also evaluated for quality. The physiochemical parameters like weight variation, thickness variation, and mechanical strength were determined. Similarly the percentage drug release and content uniformity test were also analyzed; the tested quality attributes were found within the recommended pharmacopeia ranges except brand L6 that had high drug content 124.629 +/- 3.614 while brand L[4] and L[5] were not found similar in pH 1.2. When subjected to model dependent analysis Levofloxacin showed compliance with [first order, Higuchi, Hixson Crowell and Weibull] at pH [1.2, 4.5 and 6.8]. However Diclofenac Sodium showed adherence with [first order, Hixson Crowell and Weibull] at pH [1.2, 4.5 and 6.8] but following Higuchi at pH 1.2 and 4.5 only. The interaction studies were also performed spectrophotometrically and simultaneous equation was used to estimate the percentage availability of both the drugs at pH 4.5, 6.8, FaSSGF and FaSSIF. The studies showed that the percent availability of Levofloxacin was increased significantly in FaSSIF i.e. 129.173 +/- 0.323 at 45 minutes in the presence of Diclofenac Sodium

Practice nurses and pharmacists: a perspective on the expectation and experience of nurses for future collaboration

To explore the nurses' expectations and experience about pharmacists in private sector hospitals of Karachi, Pakistan. A cross-sectional study was conducted from June to September 2012 in five private sector hospitals of Karachi, Pakistan. A convenient sample of nurses [n=377] were enrolled in this study. Data was obtained through a previously validated questionnaire. Responses were statistically analyzed using SPSSv.17. Questionnaires were returned giving a response rate of 63.6% of which 20 were unusable [n=240]. Out of the remaining 220, 24.1% [n=53] responded that they never or rarely interacted with a pharmacist. Respondents who expect pharmacists to collaborate with nurses to solve drug related problems were 45% [n=99]. Nurses' experience of pharmacists was not substantial as only 44.5% [n=98] respondents consider pharmacists as a reliable source of clinical drug information. The role of pharmacists is not well appreciated among nurses in Pakistan. Hence, pharmacists must bridge the observed gap and use a more strategic and consistent approach to build a more positive image in line with other healthcare professionals and in providing patient-centred pharmaceutical care. This research would impress upon the pharmacists the need to redefine their role in the healthcare settings

Incidence of medication error associated with the use of beta-blockers in Pakistan

Medication errors [ME] are human errors, which are very frequent in cardiovascular patients and result in patient morbidity and mortality. This study was focused to evaluate the quality of prescriptions and to emphasize the placement of clinical pharmacist in health care team. This study was carried out in different outpatient settings of [in] Karachi, Pakistan. The study period was June'2011 till June'2012. Retrospective data was analyzed for the outpatients' prescription of beta blocker drugs. During the study, prescriptions [n=450] were collected from different outpatient settings of [in] Karachi, Pakistan. Prescription containing beta-blockers were analyzed for the essential elements to be mentioned in prescription. Drug-drug interactions were identified by the Micromedex.2.0 Drug-Reax database and severity of medication error was determined by NCCMERP Index. A total of 1627 medication errors were identified in 450 prescriptions. The most frequent error was not mentioning the patient's weight [95%], followed by missing diagnosis [79.4%] and drug-drug interactions [69.5%]. Twenty-two prescriptions were placed in the most severe category I [4.88%]. Average number of drugs per prescription was 4.76. Significant difference was observed [x[2]=52.418, p<0.05] using SPSS 19 for those prescription orders having more than 5 drugs with Beta-blockers. This indicates that the errors in prescription such as drug-drug interactions, wrong dose etc. was significantly increased with the number of drugs per prescription. Results showed that medication errors are very frequent in prescription written in outpatient setting of various hospitals and clinics in Karachi. This shows that the irrational prescribing is a common practice in developing countries. Placement of skilled pharmacist in the health care system is the only solution for avoidance of these medication related problems.

Pharmacokinetic and drug interaction studies of Pefloxacin with paracetamol [NNAID] in healthy volunteers in Pakistan

In the present study, the pharmacokinetic and drug interaction evaluation of two drugs pefloxacin and paracetamol was carried out by a single-dose, two-treatment and two-sequence crossover design. Total fifteen healthy volunteers participated out of which ten completed the study. All were male volunteers, aged 22.36 years [means], with a mean weight of 76.45 +/- 12.05 Kg. The washout period between treatments was 5 week. Initially the method utilized for quantitative analysis of the drug was developed which was further validated. The study involved plasma protein precipitation with ethyl acetate and detection was done at 275nm. The retention time for pefloxacin 18 +/- 1 min and paracetamol were approximately 6 +/- 1 min, respectively. The calibration curve for pefloxacin was linear in the concentration range of 0.125-12.0 micro g/ml with r[2]=0.9987 in plasma. Standard concentration solution was maintained on the same temperature as that of volunteer's samples to optimize the periods for the determination of drug concentration in the plasma samples. Blood samples were collected from volunteers at different time intervals. The pharmacokinetics and drug interaction studies were anticipated by plotting concentration versus time-profiles. The value of AUC[0-infinity] in control was 67.355 +/- 3.174 micro g.h/ml, in treatment 61.242 +/- 3.868 micro g.h/ml along with relative bioavailability =91.395 +/- 4.864. Under the control and treatment condition the mean maximum plasma concentrations were found to be 4.679 +/- 0.248 micro g/ml and 4.6595 +/- 0.266 micro g/ml respectively. The average T[max] for plasma concentrations was 1.819 +/- 0.1743hr and 1.605 +/- 0.1134hr respectively. The biological half-lives in the two phases of studies were found to be 7.953 +/- 0.33hr in control and 7.7257 +/- 0.355hr in treatment. No significant effect were observed on the bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of pefloxacin by the concomitant administration with paracetamol, however very minor effect were observed that might be related with inter-individual variation in human volunteers. This pharmacokinetic studies also indicated that the level of drug [Cmax] do not differ from previous studies in different races

Formulation development of intermediate release Nimesulide tablets by CCRD for IVIVC studies

Simple and cost effective study consisting of three steps, comparison of micromeritic properties of different blends i.e. placebo without API and Nimesulide containing, Use of central composite design [CCRD] for intermediate release Nimesulide tablets and stability results of three selected Nimesulide tablet formulations which were calculated by using R Gui. Different concentrations of Avicel, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose [HPMC] and magnesium stearate were used as variables in central composite design and two types blend i.e., with or without Nimesulide were selected for bulk density, tap density, percentage compressibility; angle of repose and Hausner's ratio. Blending rate constant was performed after applying the different mixing times like 3, 6, 9 and 12 minutes. Twenty intermediate release formulations were designed and three formulations were chosen for compression by direct compression method on the basis of compressibility index. Physicochemical properties and best release pattern in four hours in different dissolution medium were successfully measured. Relative densities, porosity of tablets were compared with tensile strength of tablet and weight variation, hardness, friability and dissolution was performed by simple experiments. Presence of Nimesulide in the bulk increased all micromeratic tests while 9 minutes was best mixing time. The hardness of NM containing tablets increased with the increase of relative density. The release pattern was further analyzed by model dependent i.e. zero order, first order and Higuchi, Korse-meyer and Pappas, Hixson Crowell and model independent kinetic model i.e., f2 value respectively. R Gui explained the F16 formulation shows the best result in stability studies with shelf life 72 months

Evaluation and comparison of different brands of domperidone tablets available in Karachi, Pakistan

Domperidone is an anti-dopaminergic drug used for the treatment of nausea, vomiting and dyspepsia. It has also been used in Parkinson's disease. In this study, five different brands of Domeperidone tablets were selected from the local market for evaluation of their quality as the local market is occupied of many competitors for a single generic. The evaluation of Domperidone tablets was done using various pharmacopoeial and non-pharmacopoeial tests. All the test results fell within BP specified limits for all the selected brands i.e. the results for Brands A to E for weight variation, thickness and diameter were satisfactory and within limits. For Brands A to E, the results for hardness and friability were also satisfactory i.e. 4-10kg/cm2and 0.1-0.6% respectively. The results for Brands A to E for disintegration were 2-6 minutes; for dissolution and assay, the results were 89-92% and 95-99% respectively. The results of similarity factor [f[2]]also showed that all brands of Domperidone have comparative dissolution profiles

Formulation development and evaluation of diltiazem HCl sustained release matrix tablets using HPMC K4M and K100M

The aim of this study was to develop a sustained release hydrophilic matrix tablet of Diltiazem HCl and evaluates the effect of formulation variables [e.g. lubricant, binder, polymer content and viscosity grades of HPMC] on drug release. Twelve different formulations [F1-F12] were prepared by direct compression. The results of the physical parameters and assay were found to be within the acceptable range. Rate of drug release was found to be slow as the fraction of the polymer was increased from 20-50%. The drug release rate from tablets containing K4M was effectively controlled by increasing the talc concentration, whereas the burst effect was reduced by increasing binder content. The drug release was higher with K4M as compare to K100M. Model-dependent and independent methods were used for data analysis and the best results were observed for K4M in Higuchi [R[2]=0.9903-0.9962] and K100M in Baker and Lonsdale [R[2]=0.9779-0.9941]. The release mechanism of all formulations was non-Fickian. F7 [50% K4M, 2% talc, 10% Avicel PH101] and F11 [40% K100M] were very close to targeted release profile. F12 [50% K100M] exhibited highest degree of swelling and lowest erosion. The f[1] and f[2] test were performed taking F11 as a reference formulation

Validation and application of RP-HPLC method for the quantification of metoclopramide hydrochloride in oral formulations prepared for IVIVC studies

The objective of this study is to develop sensitive and cost effective reverse phase high performance liquid chromatographic method for the estimation of Metoclopramide Hydrochloride in oral solid dosage formulations. A reverse chromatographic method was used with the mobile phase of Acetonitrile, 20 m M Potassium dihydrogen phosphate buffer solution [pH 3 adjusted with orthophosphoric acid] in the ratio of 40:60. The column used was Waters C18 3.9×300 mm microBondapak [RP]. The flow rate of the mobile phase was 2 ml/minute. The detector was set at the wavelength of 275 nm. This method showed good sensitivity. The linearity was also found to be excellent [gamma[2]=0.997] in the range of 5-75 microg/ml. No interfering peaks were observed at the retention time of Metoclopramide Hydrochloride when both placebo and blank samples were injected [Retention time =1.93 min]. The parameters such as specificity, linearity, range, accuracy, precision, system suitability, solution stability, detection and quantification limits were evaluated to validate this method. This method can effectively be used for quantitative analysis of Metoclopramide Hydrochloride tablet formulations because of its specificity, accuracy and convenience of use

Emergence of resistance to fluoroquinolones among gram positive and gram negative clinical isolates

Fluoroquinolones are broad-spectrum antibiotics that are considered as first line drugs to treat infectious diseases. In order to find out useful fluoroquinolones, the antibiotic resistance of fluoroquinolones, namely, ofloxacin [OFL], ciprofloxacin [CIP], norfloxacin [NRF], enoxacin [ENX], pefloxacin [PFL] and levofloxacin [LVF] was investigated against ninety five clinical isolates that includes Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Proteus mirabilis. In vitro activity of these isolates was carried out by agar dilution method. All Staphylococcus aureus were sensitive to OFL at 2 microg/ml. About 6% isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae were found to be resistance to LVF and ENX, 6% to CIP, OFL and PFL and none of the isolates were resistant to LVF and ENX. Percentage resistance of P. aeruginosa was found to be 4.35% to CIP, 7% to OFL and 2.2% to NRF, whereas 8.69% to ENX, 0% to PFL and 17.4% to LVF, respectively. The present study provides the data about the emergence of resistance to fluoroquinolones among gram positive and gram negative bacteria and strongly recommends the rational and appropriate use of these antibiotics

Preparation, characterization and release of verapamil hydrochloride from polycaprolactone/ acrylic acid [PCL/AA] hydrogels

In this study pH sensitive, biocompatible and controlled released hydrgels were prepared and their localized drug delivery effect was analyzed. Polycaprolactone and acrylic acid [PCL/AA] were reacted by free radical polymerization and developed inter penetrating polymeric network [IPN] hydrogels. Benzylperoxide was used as initiator and N, N methylenebisacrylamide [NNMBisAm] was employed as a cross-linking agent. Different concentrations of monomer, polymer and cross-linking agent were used and the reaction parameters were optimized. The obtained PCL/AA hydrogels were fully characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy [FT-IR], scanning electron microscopy [SEM], and thermogravimetric analysis [TGA] that determined the polymer structure, its morphology and strength respectively. Verapamil, a calcium channel blocker was loaded by incubation of polymerization method. Controlled release Verapamil hydrogel was developed due to its low solubility; low permeability and having very short half life of 1.2-2 h. The dynamic swelling, equilibrium swelling and drug release were carried out in a buffer solution of pH 1.2, 4.5 and 6.8. Concentration of Acrylic acid showed direct, while Polycaprolactone inverse relation to swelling and drug release due to their hydrophilic and hydrophobic nature respectively. Cross-linking agent also had the contrary effect on swelling. Diffusion coefficient [D] of hydrogels was determined by using Flory-Rehner theory. Drug release and swelling data were analyzed by different kinetic models, like Zero order, First order, Higuchi, Korsmeyer's and Peppas. The release and diffusion was best described by the first order kinetics where n value was <0.5 for all the formulations indicating Fickian drug release mechanism

Development of Rp-HPLC method for fexofenadine determination in tablet formulations and development of dissolution method

Fexofenadine hydrochloride is a piperidine derivative. It is indicated to relive signs and symptoms that are related with seasonal allergic rhinitis, such as rhinorrhea, sneezing, nose, throat and itchy eyes. In the present research work a liquid chromatographic method was developed for the determination of Fexofenadine in tablets and the dissolution method by UV/VIS spectrophotometer was also developed. Method was developed by using Lichrospher 10 micro m [C18] column. The mobile phase is composed of acetonitrile-5mM ammonium acetate buffer [50:50, v/v] pumped at a flow rate of 1 ml/min. The UV detector was operated at 254nm. The method was validated for system suitability, accuracy/recovery, linearity, system precision, method precision, ruggedness, robustness, limit of detection and limit of quantitation. Similarly, for dissolution method difference concentrations of standard and sample solutions were prepared i.e. 65 micro g/ml, 35 micro g/ml, 17.5 micro g/ml, 8.75 micro g/ml and 4.375 micro g/ml. The proposed HPLC method was easy, precise and fewer time consuming. The linearity for the dissolution method was found to be acceptable. The correlation coefficient of standard solutions was 0.9979 similarly the correlation coefficient of sample solutions was 0.9963

Formulation development of chlorpheniramine maleate tablet by direct compression

Direct compression has continued to grow in pharmaceutical industries, since it cuts down the laborious events, faced in wet or dry granulation. The study aims at developing a new tablet formulation of chlorpheniramine maleate [4mg], using microcrystalline cellulose [Avicel PH 102], lactose DC, starch, tale, and magnesium stearate by direct compression. Different pharmacopoeial and non-pharmacopoeial tests were conducted to evaluate the characteristics of tablets. The new directly compressible tablets met the official standards and showed a percent drug release of 94.95 within 45 minutes and the assay was 100.66%. Results were compared with three commercially marketed tablet brands of chlorpheniramine maleate. Tablets were blister packed, and stability studies were carried out at room temperature and accelerated stability conditions. The analysis of stability was in accordance with the official limits, showing no substantial change during storage period. The physico-chemical data reveal that low dose drugs could be developed by a direct compression technique using suitable directly compressible excipients since it is a simplest, time saving and cost effective method of manufacturing

Analgesic prescribing in developing countries

Prescription writing is the key part in healthcare provision. This study aims to find out the current prescribing practice for the analgesics in tertiary health care centers situated in Karachi. Cross sectional, random sampling method was used to collect 1000 medicine chart of patients from different hospitals in the metropolitan city of Karachi from July to December 2008.These charts were reviewed to get information about patients' demography, reason for hospitalization, medications, number of analgesics. Different variables were determined in this study including the gender and age group of majority patients taking analgesics with their prescribing frequency, combination analgesics and different prescription errors. Results are expressed in frequency and percentage. 1000 medicine charts were reviewed. Five thousands eight hundreds and ninety one drugs were prescribed out of which 1,084 were analgesics [18.4%], 821[75.7%] were non opioids and were 263 [24.26%] opioids. Analgesics were more prescribed to females [N=564; 56.4%] than males [N=436; 43.6%]. The most prevalent age groups was between 11 to 30 years [N=263; 26.3%] and 31 to 70 years [N=200; 20%]. Paracetamol was the most frequently prescribed analgesic [N=340; 34%] followed by opioids [N=263; 26.3%], acetic acid NSAIDs? derivatives [198; 19.8%], aspirin [175; 17.5%], propionic acid NSAIDs derivatives [N=56; 5.6%] and fenamic acid NSAIDs derivatives [N=52; 5.2%]. Paracetamol and aspirin were commonly prescribed in combination with other analgesics. The most common prescription errors were omission of weight of patient [N=174; 17.4%] and strength of tablet [N=136; 13.6%], wrong dosage form [N=l16; 11.6%] and omission of route of administration [N=104; 10.4%]

Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of newer quinolones against gram positive and gram negative clinical isolates

Antibiotic resistance development is an ongoing process associated with irrational antibiotic use. WHO recommends regular surveillance programs for monitoring of antibiotic resistance. The present study is a step in this direction. A total of 124 clinical isolates of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were collected from different hospitals in Karachi. In vitro antimicrobial susceptibility studies were carried out by agar dilution method using newer quinolones that included Gatifloxacin and Levofloxacin. It was observed that 50% [n=30] isolates of Staphylococcus aureus were resistant to gatifloxacin. Gatifloxacin was more active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa [n=23] and showing complete susceptibility with MIC 1mg/L except for three very resistant strains that shown resistance at even higher concentrations. Escherichia coli [n=45] has shown 15.5% and Klebsiella pneumoniae [n=26] 34.61% resistance to gatifloxacin. Levofloxacin was more active against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli showing complete susceptibility at 0.5 mg /L concentration. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae were found to be resistant to Levofloxacin showing 36.36% and 23.08% resistance respectively. The study strongly recommends the adherence to the antibiotic policy and regular susceptibility testing to overcome the problem associated with antimicrobial resistance